In 1956, the American educational psychologist Robert M. Gagne proposed a system of classifying different types of learning in terms of the degree of complexity of the mental processes involved. He identified eight basic types and arranged these in the hierarchy. According to Gagne, the higher orders of learning in this hierarchy build upon the lower levels, requiring progressively greater amounts of previous learning for their success. The lowest four orders tend to focus on the more behavioral aspects of learning, while the highest four focus on the more cognitive aspects. 1. Signal learning- The simplest form of learning known as classical conditioning. The learner is conditioned to produce a desired (involuntary) response as a result of a stimulus that would not normally produce that response. i.e praying (condition) at the sound of a bell (stimulus). 2. Stimulus-response learning- This is a voluntary response to learning that may be used in acquiring verbal skills as well as physical movements. This type of learning can occur when the instructor praises the learner for deeper thinking or provides constructive criticism during reflection or debriefing. 3. Chain learning­- It occurs when the learner is able to connect two or more previously learned stimulus-response bonds into a linked order; more complex psychomotor skills are learned, but they tend to occur naturally. i.e. learning how to tie shoestrings or buttoning a shirt. 4. Verbal association- It occurs when the learner makes associations using verbal connections (Specht, 2008); it is the key process in language skill development. For example, a student nurse being able to define medical terminology and apply it to a clinical situation. 5. Discrimination learning- It is seen when the learner is able to perform different responses to a series of similar stimuli that may differ in a systematic way. Discrimination learning is made more difficult when the learner comes across roadblocks or interference that inhibits continual learning. For example, a patient complaining of abdominal pain after abdominal surgery. The student must learn how to differentiate this pain from that of gas, intrabdominal bleeding, incisional pain, or infection. Interference may present itself when the student can not see other key factors that may contribute to the pain; therefore not allowing the student to fully address or manage the patient’s pain appropriately. 6. Concept learning- It involves the ability to make consistent responses to different stimuli; it is the process in which the learner learns how to organize learning in a systematic structure and foster deeper learning. The student’s behavior is controlled by the abstract properties of each stimulus. The student nurse must realize interventions, or behaviors, appropriate for one patient, or stimulus, may not be appropriate for the next patient. 7. Rule learning- This involves being able to learn relationships between two or more concepts and apply them in different situations, new or old; it is the basis of learning general rules or procedures. This can be seen when the student can apply advocacy and confidentiality to a patient situation. 8. Problem-solving- It involves developing the ability to invent a complex rule or procedure for the purpose of solving one particular problem and other problems of a similar nature; this can be accomplished through case studies and reflection. Nursing students can improve on problem-solving through the nursing process: assessing, formulating a nursing diagnosis, analyzing data specific to the problem, formulating a plan of action, implementing the plan, and evaluating the effectiveness of the plan. Thus, option 1 is the correct answer.