List I mentions the four valid means of knowledge as given by gotama while List II gives their description. Match List-I with List-II: List – I (Valid means of knowledge) List – II (Description) (A) Perception (I) Cognition which presupposes some other cognition (B) Inference (II) Knowledge of the relation between a word and its denotation (C) Comparison (III) Statement of a trustworthy person and consists in understanding its meaning (D) Verbal testimony (IV) Non-erroneous cognition produced by the interaction of sense organs with the objects Choose the correct answer from the options given below: Correct Answer (A) - (IV), (B) - (I), (C) - (II), (D) - (III) Prama is valid knowledge. Knowledge can be valid or invalid, valid knowledge is called prama and non-valid knowledge is known as aprama. Pramana is valid means of knowledge and its important four means include perception (pratyaksa), inference (anumana), verbal testimony (sabda), and comparison (upamana). Valid Means Of Knowledge Description Perception Living beings see, hear, smell, taste, and feel. Through these, they come to know about the objects of the world. This is called Pratyaksa (Perception). If the object is not subtle, distant, very near, in darkness, or covered; or unless our eyes are defective, we can all see the thing clearly and know it. It is non-erroneous cognition produced by the interaction of sense organs with the objects. Inference There is smoke on the yonder hill. There must be fire over there. We have seen on countless occasions that where there is smoke there is fire. So we infer that there is fire on the hill. This is inference. It is cognition that presupposes some other cognition. The term anumana (inference) literally means after knowledge i.e., the knowledge that follows other knowledge. Comparison ‘Have you seen Mars?’ ‘No, I haven’t.’ ‘Have you not seen the pictures of Mars either?’ ‘No, I haven’t. And I do not know what Mars is. What is Mars and how does it look like?’ ‘Ah! You know nothing then? Mars is a planet. It is like our earth.’ ‘Like the earth. Ah! I understand.’ This is knowing by visible examples. It is the knowledge that is derived from upamana (comparison). It is defined as the knowledge between the relation of a word and its meaning or denotation. It is also known as knowledge via analogy. Verbal Testimony Regarding supernatural and divine things, there is only one source of knowledge – the words of the sages. Their words are compiled in the Vedas. The Vedas are infallible. But even here we need the senses to either read or listen to the Vedas. Testimony consists of words (sabda). So far as words are heard through our ears, they are perceived. Knowledge of words is, therefore, knowledge through perception and is quite valid. It is defined as a statement of a trustworthy person and consists in understanding its meaning. Thus, option 2 is the correct answer.